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Armenia: Cradle of Civilization

av David Marshall Lang

MedlemmarRecensionerPopularitetGenomsnittligt betygDiskussioner
2011,091,121 (5)Ingen/inga
Originally published in 1970, this book is the result of many years of study and research in the field. It begins with a geographic and ethnic survey of the land and Armenian people and traces the land's prehistory back to the Old Stone Age. The origins of the wine-making and bronze-working industries are discussed, in which Armenia played a pioneering role. The outstanding Armenian contribution to Church art and architecture is also explored as is the contribution of Armenia to painting, philosophy, and science. The final section is devoted to an account of Soviet Armenia.… (mer)
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Armenian history has witnessed the heights of prosperity and culture but also the tragedy of conflict, oppression and genocide. Among its most salient features are its vast chronological length and the persistence and resilience of its people. In this excellent book of only 300 pages, published in 1970, David Lang has provided a full and well-written introduction to this long story and to the cultural and artistic contributions of the Armenians. The Armenians (and the Georgians) have persisted in a region where many of their contemporaries in ancient times have disappeared, relapsed into barbarism or been absorbed by other peoples (such as the Hittites, the Mitannis, the Medes, the Caucasian Albanians and the Assyrians, to name a few).

Armenia is located on a mountainous plateau overlooking to the south the great plains and rivers of Mesopotamia. People have lived there for at least 500,000 years, and since very ancient times Armenia was a crossroads of east-west and north-south trade. Because of its strategic location, it was a recurrent target and crossroads for invasion. Well-endowed with resources, this area was always in the forefront of the technological breakthroughs that distinguish each of the ages from the Paleolithic through to the Iron Age. Armenia was a leader in agriculture (many modern cereals may have first appeared there), mining and stone and metal working given its stores of obsidian, copper and iron (exports of obsidian tools from Armenia go back to pre-historical times and it was a major exporter of copper in antiquity) and domestication of horses and other animals (the Sumerian word for “horse” is “ass from the mountains”).

The Kura-Araxes culture, characterized by its distinctive pottery, thrived for most of the third millennium BC. Lang describes it as “a vast Early Bronze Age culture, centered in Armenia and Georgia on the Kura and Araxes’ valleys, but stretching for hundreds of miles south-westwards to Palestine and Syria and to the northeast, right up to the north Caucasian plain and the Caspian littoral. Comparable cultural unification was attained subsequently in Armenian history--and then for very short periods--only during the heyday of the Urartian kingdom about 750 BC, and then during the reign of King Tigranes the Great (95-55 BC).” Thus, Armenia was not a backwater in the Near East in the third millennium but rather had full commercial and cultural relations with Iran, Mesopotamia and Anatolia.

The origins of Urartu go back to at least 1280 BC when the Assyrians attacked tribes (referred to as the “Nairi”) living in a region they called “Urartri.” (Even earlier, around 1400 BC in Hittite territory to the west of Urartri, references had begun to appear to a confederation of “Hayasa,” the name that Armenians eventually used to identify themselves). The Urartrian tribes formed “princedoms” that eventually became a confederation to face the Assyrian threat. King Arame (or Aramu) (880-844 BC) is reputed to be the founder of the Urartrian kingdom, and his successor, Sarduri I, is known as the founder of the city now known as Van. David Lang tells us the fascinating story of how early archaeologists identified Van and other Urartrian cities and began the process of deciphering Urartrian cuneiform. One of the cities, known today as Arun-Berd, turned out to be the original location of the city of Yerevan and was founded in 782 BC by King Argishti I. (In 2018, Yerevan celebrated its 2800th anniversary.) Urartu had some success in defending itself against Assyria. Indeed, in 766 BC armies under Argishti I penetrated to the outskirts of Nineveh. Urartu also survived the downfall of Assyria, for in 612 BC Nineveh was destroyed by united forces of Babylon, the Medes and Scythian “hordes” from the north. However, 22 years later, in 590 BC, the Medes overthrew Urartu’s capital city of Van, and Scythians and Cimmerians pillaged the outlying strongholds. Urartu was known for its engineering accomplishments in the construction of cities, temples and canals, and many of the latter are still in use today, as well as for its art, culture, administration and military prowess.

In 590 BC, with the fall of Urartu, we come to two pivotal points in the history of Armenia. First, the Armenian people emerge from the local populations that survived the fall of Urartu. Lang reviews the evidence available to him in 1970 and concludes that there was a combination or integration of the Urartrians with other local peoples (such as the descendants of the Hayasa), who also lived in the area of “greater Armenia.” The historian Moses of Khorene claimed that King Paruir of Armenia took part in the sack of Nineveh in 612 BC.

Lang does not rule out some amount of migration from the West, which was Herodotus’s explanation for the appearance of the Armenians, but he seems to think that the Indo-European people who assimilated with the Urartrians were already in greater Armenia. While the Armenians as Indo-Europeans eventually dominated, e.g., by imposing their language, many features of Urartrian civilization survived, such as the similarity of the name of Mount Ararat to Urartu. When Xenophon crossed Armenia with his 10,000 Greeks in 401-400 BC, he described the Armenians as living in the valleys and the followers of the god Haldi (i.e., the Urartrians) as living as refugees in the mountains. He says that the Persian King Cyrus persuaded the Armenians to invite the Urartrians down from the hills to cultivate vacant fields and in exchange for the Armenians’ being permitted to use the mountain pastures.

The second pivotal point is the emergence of the Armenians in an intermediary position between the various Persian civilizations to the East and the Greek and then Roman civilizations to the West. Sometimes dominated by one side, sometimes by the other, and still other times split between the two, Armenia also had glorious periods of substantial autonomy and independence. With the temporary break to this pattern represented by the Arab conquest, Armenia would essentially remain in this position until 1071, when the Seljuq Turks decisively defeated the Byzantines at Manzikert.

Going back to the sixth century BC, the Persian Achaemenids overthrew Babylon in 550 BC and dominated Armenia for approximately 200 years from 546 BC to 334 BC. Lang states that the Armenians were one of nineteen “satrapies” in the Persian Empire and that Urartrians (now called the Alarodians) were another. The Armenian satrap Orontes became strong under the weak Persian King Artaxerxes and founded the Orontid dynasty, which eventually dominated greater Armenia. The Armenians supported the Persians in 331 BC at their decisive defeat by Alexander at the battle of Arbela. King Orontes II died in the battle, but Alexander permitted the king’s son to take over the Orontid throne. Armenia now went through a period of Hellenization including the growth of urban centers and social stratification. The Armenian kings also became more absolute in their power. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, Armenia became a tributary and sometime foe of the Seleucid Hellenistic state. Upon the death of King Orontes IV, the last of the Orontid rulers of Greater Armenia, the Seleucid King Antiochus III in 190 BC appointed Artaxias as the next king of Armenia. “Artaxias was the founder of the third and greatest Armenian monarchy, counting the Urartrian kingdom founded by Arame as the first (as does Moses of Khorene) and the Orontids as the second.” In the same year, Rome came on the scene by defeating Antiochus III at Magnesia.

King Tigranes the Great (95-55 BC) came to the throne at a propitious time when both Rome and the Seleucid kingdom were not major threats. In alliance with his father-in-law, Mithridates Eupator, the King of Pontus who had almost driven Rome out of Asia, King Tigranes conquered Syria. His “domain stretched from the shores of the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean, from Mesopotamia up to the Pontic Alps,” the greatest amount of territory ever controlled by any Armenian state. Following the custom of other Armenian kings, he founded a new capital named Tigranokerta after himself. However, Lucullus led a Roman recovery, first defeating the King of Pontus in 72 BC and then taking advantage of Syrian and Greek dissatisfaction with Tigranes to defeat him and capture Tigranokerta. However, Lucullus was then called back to Rome because of mutiny in the army. In the meantime, the Parthians provided Triganes’s son (also named Tigranes) an army to challenge his father, and the Romans returned, this time led by Pompey. In 66 BC, Tigranes surrendered to the combined forces of Pompey and his son. However, Tigranes now being 75 years old and no longer deemed a threat, Pompey permitted Tigranes to continue to rule but took his son back to Rome where he was executed as a potential threat.

Tigranes was succeeded by another of his sons, Artavazd II (55-34 BC). When the Roman Crassus began his campaign against the Parthians, Artavazd supported his Roman ally and provided advice on how to defeat Parthia. However, Crassus ignored Artavazd’s advice, and his campaign culminated in the decisive defeat in 53 BC at the battle of Carrhae. By that time Artavazd had changed his alliance to Parthia, and he had arranged a marriage of his sister to the son of the Parthian king. While the wedding was taking place at Artavazd’s capital, Artaxata, a Parthian soldier entered with the head of Crassus and presented it to the Parthian king. In 36 BC, Mark Antony sought to conquer Parthia with an army of 100,000 men. By now Armenia was once again in alliance with Rome. Antony led a disastrous campaign and had to retreat. Antony and Cleopatra decided to blame the defeat on their Armenian allies, and they captured Artavazd and his family, taking them to Alexandria. They despoiled Armenian cities and tortured and killed Artavazd II in 34 BC.

For the next two centuries, Rome and Parthia competed in their efforts to place nominees on the Armenian throne. The Artaxiad dynasty ended in 1 BC when Augustus dislodged Tigranes IV. In the first century AD, the Romans put on the Armenian throne a Georgian, Mithridates, who was subsequently murdered and replaced by his nephew Rhodamist. The Armenians revolted against Georgian rule with Parthian help, and in 53 AD, Tiridates I, the brother of the Parthian king, was made king. The dynasty of the Arsacids was to last until 428 AD.

The Roman general Corbulo campaigned to recover Armenia in 58 AD, and captured both Artaxata and Tirgranokerta. Tiridates counterattacked and defeated the Roman army at Rhandeia in 62. Nero compromised by crowning Tiridates in Rome in 66. He also gave Tiridates a subsidy and helped rebuild Tigranokert. “The long and prosperous reign of Tiridates I marks a return to an eastern, Parthian orientation in Armenian culture and religion. After the Hellenistic and Romanizing phase of Armenian history, stretching from the Orontids to the advent of the Arsacids in the first century AD, a new phase of ‘Iranianism’ was now entered into by Armenian society.”

Nero viewed Armenia as a buffer state against the Parthians. However, under Trajan there was yet another change in policy--he invaded Parthia in 113 and dethroned and killed the Armenian king, Parthamasiris, as well as capturing the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. But in 117 AD Hadrian pulled back. The next Armenian Arsacid monarch, Vaharsh I, founded the city of Vagharshpat, the modern Etchmiadzin.

Other Roman Emperors (Marcus Aurelius, Septimus Severus, and Caracalla) continued the futile wars with Parthia. Rome, Armenia and Parthia were weakened by these wars. (The Fertile Crescent was in effect partitioned until the Arabs united it in the seventh century AD.). Eventually, the wars led to the replacement of the Parthian Empire by the much more dangerous and militant power of the Sasanian kingdom. “The culmination of this agelong struggle was the defeat and capture of the Emperor Valerian by Great King Shapur I in 260, after which the power and prestige of the Roman Empire in the East were never the same again.” The Armenians, however, became the foes of the Sasanians because the Armenian Arsacids were the junior branch of the Parthian royal house that the Sasanids were determined to root out. Hence the Armenians renewed their Roman orientation and began to oppose further Iranian influence. Around this time, Armenia adopted the Christian religion.

According to tradition, St Bartholomew and St Thaddeus preached Christianity in Armenia. What is known for sure is that St Gregory the Illuminator brought the Christian religion to Armenia in 301. St Gregory was a member of a branch of the Arsacids. Gregory’s father had assassinated King Khosrow I in about 238, and as a result Gregory’s family was largely exterminated. However, Gregory was taken to safety in Cappadocia where he grew up in Christian Caesarea. As an adult, he returned to Armenia to preach. King Tiridates III recognized him and had him thrown into prison for 15 years. Moreover, the king brutally killed a group of 37 Christian women, who became the first Christian martyrs in Armenia, including Hripsime and the leader of the women Garane. It is reported that by divine retribution the king was reduced to a beast, like Nebuchadnezzar. The king’s sister had a dream and was convinced that Gregory could cure the king. Gregory did so and baptized his household. The king then declared Christianity to be the religion of Armenia. Lang suggests that there may have also been political reasons for the adoption of Christianity “since it was now the policy of the Armenian Arsacids to resist in every way the ideological and cultural encroachment of Zoroastrian Iran.” He also notes that “the implacable hostility between the Sasanid ruling dynasty and the royal house of Armenia” may have been at the root of this.

Gregory built a church in Vargashapat at the location where the martyrs were murdered and renamed the town Etchmiadzin, which means “the only Begotten has descended.” Gregory became the Primate of the new Armenian state church. Subsequently, the Byzantine church tried to assert its jurisdiction over the Armenian church on the grounds that the Archbishop of Cesararea had consecrated Gregory. The Armenian church, which was recognized by King Tiridates as a state religion before Constantine recognized Christianity in the Roman Empire, never accepted this assertion of jurisdiction. Initially, Armenian bishops were allowed to marry, and the Primate would be passed from father to son. St Nerses the Great reigned from 353-73 and was succeeded by his son, St Sahak (387-439). After St Sahak, the hereditary principle was abandoned and celibacy was instituted.

The growing strength of the nobility (nakharar) and the institutionalization of Christianity as a state within the state resulted in social and economic crises that led to the decline and eventual fall of the Arsacid monarchy. After defeating and slaying Emperor Julian the Apostate in 363 AD, the Sasanian King Shapur II invaded Armenia with the assistance of a renegade Armenian, Meruzhan Ardsruni. King Arshak II and his loyal general, Vasak Mamikonian, were lured to the Persian court on the pretext of peace negotiations and then put to death. Shapur II destroyed the urban communities in Armenia that were based on international trade and deported the inhabitants (including Jews) to Persia. The great Armenian nobles took advantage of the situation to weaken further the Arsacid dynasty. However, the weaknesses of Shapur II’s successors caused Manuel, the regent of Armenia, to shift his allegiance back to the Roman Empire. In 387, at the Peace of Acilisene, Shapur III and Emperor Theodosius recognized two Armenian kingdoms, one under Roman rule and one under Sasanian rule. The Romans did not select a king in their sector; in so-called Persarmenia, the Arsacids continued to be nominal rulers until the deposition of Artaxias IV in 428. “For five centuries following the abolition of the Arsacid monarchy, the political history of Armenia is largely that of the great rival houses of the feudal princes (nakharas and ishkars).” St Nerses had pleaded with the nakharas to stay loyal to the monarchy, but they concocted ridiculous allegations against the last kings of the Arsacid line to justify themselves.

It has been estimated that, around the year 500, there were in all of Armenia as many as 34 states and 20 dynasties. “What they lacked in political cohesion, these early medieval Armenian dynasts made up by their vigor, cunning, zest for living, and devotion to religion and the arts.” In the early fifth century, St Mesrop-Mashtots developed the Armenian alphabet, which facilitated promulgation of the Christian faith. It was probably the Christian faith that saved Armenia from being assimilated by the great powers around them. The medieval princes built many churches. The Sasanian Great Kings tried to spread Iranian culture and religion by force. In 451, Vardan Mamikonian led an army against the Persians, but did not have a unified support of the Armenian princes, some of whom supported the Persians, and the Romans also refused to send assistance. In a battle of 66,000 Armenians against 222,000 Persians, including armed elephants, the Armenians suffered defeat and Vardan was killed. Although the Armenians lost the battle of Avarayr, “so great was the carnage, that the Persians gave up their dream of subjugating Armenia.”

Meanwhile, because of the struggle with the Persians, the Armenians did not attend the Council of Chalcedon in 451 where the Christian Church tried to come up with a compromise between those who believed generally in Christ having a single nature (the Monophysites) and those who believed Christ combined a mortal and divine nature (the Nestorians). The Nestorians came away from this councill believing their views had prevailed, but many Christians including the Syrians would not accept the Nestorian claims. The Syrians appealed to the Armenian Church for support. Faithful to the anti-Nestorian principles of St Sahak, in 506 the Armenian Church held a synod of Armenian, Georgian and Caucasian Albanian bishops in which they professed faith in the Council of Ephesus and rejected Nestorianism, including the Council of Chalcedon. To this day, this issue separates the Armenian church from both the Greek Orthodox Church and Roman Catholicism.

In the fifth and sixth centuries there was continued political unrest in Armenia. The Byzantine Empire continued its efforts to extend its sphere of influence over Armenia. It suppressed the Armenian principalities in the Byzantine sphere of influence. Many Armenians began to migrate to the Byzantine Empire, including Constantinople, and the Byzantines themselves resettled Armenian communities, including sending, in 578, 10,000 Armenians to Cyprus, which still has an important Armenian community. Emperor Maurice found Armenians troublesome in their homeland and planned a vaster deportation of Armenians to Thrace. Many Armenians fled to Persia which they found to be less tyrannical than Christian Byzantium. The deportation of Armenians to Thrace laid the foundations of the important communities which flourished in modern Bulgaria, notably in Sophia and Plovdev.

Emperor Maurice was assassinated in 602, which enabled Persia to ravage Syria, capture Antioch and Damascus and, in 614, to raid Jerusalem and carry off the relic of the True Cross. Heraclius (610-641) pushed back the Persians, captured most of Armenia and Azerbaijan, and returned the True Cross to Jerusalem. Armenian troops assisted in the campaign which led in 628 to the overthrow and murder of the Sasanian Great King Khrusrau himself. Heraclius also made efforts to reunite the Greek and Armenian churches. Threatening Armenia that he would set up a separate patriarchy for Armenia, Heraclius eventually obtained agreement from the Catholicus Ezr of a revised formula of the nature of Christ which was approved by a special synod held at Erzurum. The Armenian bishops and people were upset at this concession to the Greeks, and the rancor against Ezr has been demonstrated ever since by inverting the initial letter of his name on the list of Armenian patriarchs.

Heraclius’s efforts came to naught. “Weakened by religious schism and internecine strife, neither Byzantium, Sasanid Iran nor Armenia itself was in any condition to resist the advance of a new world power-- that of Islam under the Arab conquerors.” Persia had been weakened by Heraclius, and the Monophysites of Syria, Palestine and Egypt were in no mood to oppose the Arabs, whose Islamic faith in the oneness of God partly conformed to the Monophysite view of the Oneness of Christ. In 636, the Arabs defeated a Byzantine army led by an Armenian, Vahan, and in 642 they crushed the Sasanids. They started to raid Armenia, but the Byzantines also tried to recover their Armenian lands. To resist the Byzantines, the Armenians made an arrangement with the Arabs for Armenia to become a Arab protectorate. Armenia, Georgia, and Caucasian Albania “formed a single vice royalty of the Arab Caliphate designated as Arminya. Dvin was the seat of the Arab viceroys.” Dvin became one of the great cities of the Near East with several magnificent Armenian churches, all now destroyed.

For the next two centuries, it was a tug-of-war between Byzantium and the Arabs for influence over Armenia. During this period certain Armenian principalities were to prosper. The Ardsrunis would become the kings of Vaspurakan around Lake Van and the Bagratids would rule in Ani. Eventually, the Arabs reacted against the independent spirit of the Armenian dynasties and massacred several hundred Armenian lords in churches in Nakhichevan. Many Armenians fled to the Byzantine Empire and certain parts of Armenia were depopulated. The disarray in Armenia led to the development of heretical groups such as the Paulicians, which were suppressed by the Armenian princes and the church; eventually they expanded into Byzantium where they became a real threat to Byzantine authority. In 872, the military resistance of the Paulicians was finally crushed in Western Armenia. They were then dispersed to Italy and Bulgaria, where they gave rise to the heresy of the Bogomils.

Armenians played an important role in the Byzantine Empire, and many became emperors, including Basil I who took the throne in 867 and established a dynasty that lasted nearly two centuries. As Arab power weakened, the Armenians successfully defended their lands against other neighboring Muslim rulers. Ashot V became king and his grandson, Ashot the Iron, drove Muslim marauders out of the country and reestablished public order. “Armenia reached the apogee of power, prosperity, and cultural achievement under his successors: Ashot’s brother Abas I (928-1020), who set up his capital at Kars; the son of Abas, Ashot III the Merciful (952-77), who transferred the capital to Ani: and then the sons of Ashot the Merciful, Smbat II, the Conqueror (977-89) and Gagik I (989-1020).”

In Medieval Armenia numerous beautiful churches were built and new cities founded. In the 10th century, Manuel built the palace of Aghtamar on an island in Lake Van for King Gagik of Vaspurakan. The Golden Age of Ani was at the end of the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th century. It was said that there were more than 1000 churches in Ani. The distinctive Armenian church architecture was to influence Gothic architecture in the West.

This happy era was not to last. Rather than leave the flourishing Armenian lands as a buffer against enemies, Basil II of Byzantium conquered much of Armenia and incorporated it into the Byzantine Empire. Many Armenians left their homeland to escape oppressive Byzantine rule and heavy taxation. Meanwhile, the Seljuq Turks appeared and began to capture and burn Armenian cities. Ani and Kars fell in 1064. The final disaster struck when the Byzantine Emperor Romanus Diogenes lost the battle at Manzikert in 1071 to Alp Arslan of the Seljuk Turks. More Armenians left Greater Armenia.

The Byzantines invited Armenians to settle in Cilicia, a region between Anatolia and Syria on the Mediterranean Sea which had become depopulated in the struggles between the Arabs and the Byzantines. The Armenians established a new kingdom that lasted for almost 300 years. Ruben founded a dynasty in 1080 and over time captured the Byzantine cities. The new kingdom supported the Crusaders but also vigorously defended its territory from Byzantines and Crusaders alike. The Cilician Armenians then had to face the Mamluks from Egypt and the Seljuqs as the Crusaders’ hold on the Levant weakened. The Mongol invasions created an opportunity for Cilicia because the Mongols regarded the Muslim powers as their chief enemies and were open to an alliance with Cilicia. However, the Mongols retreated after being defeated by the Mamluks in 1260, who then invaded Cilicia in 1266. Nevertheless, Cilicia managed to survive until 1375 , when the last king , Levon V Lusignan, was captured by the Mamluks. “With Levon V, the political history of Armenia came to a close for over five centuries -- until the proclamation of the Armenian Republic in 1918.”

In Caucasian Armenia, the incessant wars between the Ottoman Turks and the Persian dynasty of the Safavis between 1500 and 1722 caused great misery and suffering. Shah Abbas I deported large numbers of Armenians from Nakhichevan and Julfa to the outskirts of his capital city of Isfahan, where they prospered in the new cathedral city of New Julfa. The purpose of the deportations was not only to quell separatism in Armenia but also to benefit from the commercial trade in which the Armenians engaged. Armenians also migrated to India, Malaya and the Far East where they played an important role in commerce and manufacturing.

After Armenians lost political power in Cilicia, Lang’s coverage gets less detailed. He does describe the cultural and artistic achievements of the Armenians during those centuries, in particular the churches and monasteries in Armenia. In the final chapter he discusses the Armenian massacres that took place between 1895 and 1920. In 1895, Sultan Abdul Hamid, concerned about the threat of ethnic nationalism to the Ottoman Empire, ordered the massacre of Armenians in eastern Turkey, and about 300,000 died. When the Young Turks grabbed power in 1908, they initially assured the minorities that they would be treated fairly, but by 1910 they had put in place a secret plan to eliminate the Armenians. With the initial reversals of World War I, they decided to put their genocidal plan into effect, with the connivance of their ally, Germany. Out of three million Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, half were killed by barbaric acts that Lang describes. As for Eastern Armenia, the Republic established in 1918 lost its independence when the Red Army invaded, but the return of the Russians also blocked Turkish nationalist expansion to the East. Lang ends the book (again, published in 1970) with a discussion of the contemporary Soviet Republic of Armenia. ( )
  drsabs | Aug 19, 2020 |
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Originally published in 1970, this book is the result of many years of study and research in the field. It begins with a geographic and ethnic survey of the land and Armenian people and traces the land's prehistory back to the Old Stone Age. The origins of the wine-making and bronze-working industries are discussed, in which Armenia played a pioneering role. The outstanding Armenian contribution to Church art and architecture is also explored as is the contribution of Armenia to painting, philosophy, and science. The final section is devoted to an account of Soviet Armenia.

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